The development of new formulations and delivery systems for administration of physiologically active peptides and proteins and other therapeutics and materials is driven by the need to provide these peptides or proteins or other materials to achieve the desirable physiological effects. With respect to peptides and proteins, many of them must be delivered via systemic circulation. In addition, peptides and proteins that have low molecular masses tend to have short biological half-lives due to their efficient removal from systemic circulation via kidneys. For example, a fraction of these peptides and proteins can also be removed via reticulo-endothelial uptake due to recognition by monocyte/macrophages or as a result of opsonization by complement components. Many peptides and proteins can also lose their activity in vivo due to proteolysis (peptide bond cleavage).
In part to circumvent these undesirable effects, a drug delivery system may be used. There are several drug delivery strategies that can be useful for peptide and protein delivery in vivo. First, a continuous systemic infusion of drug via a pump can be employed. This strategy is proven efficient in clinical practice but may be impractical for outpatients requiring high levels of mobility, associated disadvantages of quality of life and potential intravenous (I.V.) line infections. Thus, there is a need for improved compositions and formulations for the administration of peptides that have a prolonged half-life to reduce the need for frequent and repeated administrations or infusions.
Cirrhosis of the liver is a common consequence of excessive alcohol consumption or hepatitis leading to life-threatening complications. In patients with cirrhosis and type 1 hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), splanchnic vasodilation resulting from portal vein hypertension plays a critical role in the progression to renal failure. The use of splanchnic and systemic vasoconstrictors such as vasopressin agonists or alpha-1-adrenergic receptor agonists can improve renal function in patients with type 1 HRS. Studies also suggest that vasoconstrictor administration is a promising therapeutic approach targeting vasodilation involved in, but not limited to (1) renal failure in type 2 HRS; (2) esophageal varices; (3) paracentesis-induced circulatory dysfunction; (4) arterial hypotension induced by byproducts of bacteria, (5) anesthesia-associated hypotension, (6) cardiac arrest, and (7) postpartum hemorrhage. Under these conditions a long acting vasoconstrictor such as long-acting vasopressin will be beneficial for these patients.
HRS is characterized by renal failure in patients with advanced cirrhosis and liver failure, and severe sinusoidal portal hypertension. There are two types of HRS, type 1 and type 2. Type 1 is characterized by rapid deterioration of renal function with doubling of serum creatinine to greater than 2.5 mg/dL (221 uM) in less than 2 weeks with median survival of 1.7 weeks. Type 2 is characterized by stable or slowly progressive renal dysfunction with median survival of 6 months. The probability of developing HRS in cirrhosis patients with ascites is 19% at 1 year and increases to 39% at 5 years.
Esophageal Variceal Hemorrhage (EVH) is a complication of portal hypertension resulting from cirrhosis. EVH accounts for 6-12% of upper GI bleeds (Longstreth G F, et al. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90(2):206-210; Wilcox C M, et al. Southern Medical Journal 1999; 92(1):44-50; Sorbi D, et al. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98(11):2424-2434). The treatment of EVH according to ACG Guidelines (1997) is endoscopic treatment (ligation or sclerotherapy) in combination with vasoactive therapeutics; e.g., vasopressin or its analogs.